Physics Part 2 - Quick Guide

Physics - Introduction

Introduction

• Physics is one of the most significant disciplines of natural science, which describe the nature and properties of matters.

• The term ‘physics’ is derived from the Ancient Greek word i.e. ‘phusikḗ’ meaning ‘knowledge of nature’.

Definition

• Physics is the branch of natural science that studies the nature and properties of matter and energy.

• The significant subject matter of physics includes mechanics, heat & thermodynamics, optics, sound, electricity, magnetism, etc.

• Development of Physics also makes significant contributions in the field of technologies. For example, inventions of new technology such as television, computers, cell phone, advanced home appliances, nuclear weapons, etc.

Development of Physics

• During the ancient period, the development of physics took place with the development of astronomy.

• However, during the medieval period, a notable work of the Arab writer and scientist Ibn Al-Haitham revolutionized the concept of physics.

• Ibn Al-Haitham had written a book in seven volumes namely “Kitāb al-Manāẓir “also known as “The Book of Optics.”

• In this book, Ibn Al-Haitham disprove the ancient Greek concept of vision and introduced a new theory.

• Ibn Al-Haitham had also introduced the concept of the pinhole camera.

• During the late medieval period, Physics became a separate discipline of the natural science.

• In making physics as a separate discipline, the major contributions were given by the European scientists.

• These modern European scientists had been introduced different concepts of physics and discovered and invented many new technologies.

• For example, Copernicus replaced the ancient view of geocentric model and introduced the heliocentric concept; Galileo invented the telescopes, Newton discovered the laws of motion and universal gravitation, etc.

• The era of modern physics came with the discovery of quantum theory by Max Planck and theory of relativity by Albert Einstein.

• After development of modern physics, the ear of applied physics commenced where emphasis is given on ‘research’ on a particular use.

• The particle physicists have been consistently designing and developing the high energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs.

• Nuclear physics is another branch of modern physics that studies the constituents and interactions of the atomic nuclei.

• The most widely known inventions and applications of nuclear physics are the generation of nuclear power and the development of nuclear weapons technology.

• At present, the physic scientists are working on the concept of high-temperature superconductivity.

Physics - Branches

The following table illustrates the major branches and their sub-branches) of physics −

Physics - Acoustics

Introduction

• Acoustics is an interdisciplinary science that studies different mechanical waves passing through solid, liquid, and gases.

• Basically, acoustics is the science of sound that describes the generation, transmission, and effects of sounds; it also, including biological and psychological effects sound

• Likewise, acoustics studies vibration, sound, ultrasound, infrasound.

• The term "acoustic" is a Greek word i.e. ‘akoustikos,’ which means "of or for hearing, ready to hear."

• These days, acoustics technology is very much applicable in many industries specially to reduce the noise level.

Acousticians

• The person who is an expert in the field of acoustics is known as acoustician.

• There are a variety of acoustics fields of study. For example, the production sound, control of sound, transmission of sound, reception of sound, or effects of sound on human beings as well as on animals.

Types of Acousticians

• Following are the major types of acousticiansn −

• Bioacoustician − The expert of this field researches and studies birds of a given geographic region to determine that the man-made noise changes their behavior.

• Biomedical Acoustician − The expert of this field researches and develop medical equipment to treat kidney stone.

• Underwater Acoustician − The expert of this field research and design sophisticated sonar hardware that explores the ocean floor.

• Audiologist − The expert of this field diagnose hearing impairments.

• Architectural Acoustician − The expert of this field designs an opera house to manage the high pitch sound (inside the house).

Fields of Acoustics

• Following are the major fields of acoustics.

• General Acoustics − This field of acoustic studies about the sounds and waves.

• Animal Bioacousticians − This field of acoustic studies how animals create, use, and hear sounds.

• Architectural Acoustics − This field of acoustic studies about the building designs to have the pleasing sound quality and safe sound levels.

• Medical Acoustics − This field of acoustic researches and studies the use acoustics to diagnose and treat various types of illnesses.

• Archaeoacoustics − This field of acoustic studies sound systems of archaeological sites and artefacts.

• Psychoacoustics − This field of acoustic studies – how human beings respond to a particular sound.

Physics - Biophysics

Introduction

• Biophysics is a fascinating term for the biology researchers as well as for the physics researcher, as it creates bridge between these two subjects of science.

• Biophysics (also known as biological physics) is basically an interdisciplinary approach to study the biological systems. It is uses physics technology to understand the biological systems.

• Likewise, biophysics integrates all levels of biological organization, i.e. from molecular level to organismic and population level.

• In 1892, first time Karl Pearson used the term ‘Biophysics.’

Subject Matter of Biophysics

• Biophysicists study the life (basically human life); starting from the cellular organs (such as ribosome, mitochondria, nucleus, etc.) to organisms, and their environment.

• With the advancement of technology, the scientists and researchers of both the disciplines (namely Biology and Physics) started exploring a different level of life to understand how actually biological system works.

• The biophysicists largely research on the following types of questions −

  • How do the cells of nervous system communicate?

  • How and why do viruses invade cells?

  • What is the functionality of protein synthesis?

  • How do plants harness sunlight to make their food?

Advantages of Biophysics

• The study of life at molecular level helps to understand many phenomena of a human body including various diseases and their treatment.

• Biophysics helped to understand the structure and function of DNA.

• The study of biophysics helps to understand the various elements of bio-chemistry.

• Biophysics also help to understand the structure and various functionality of protein.

Sub-Branches of Biophysics

• Following are the major sub-branches of biophysics −

  • Biochemistry

  • Physical chemistry

  • Nanotechnology

  • Bioengineering

  • Computational biology

  • Biomechanics

  • Bioinformatics

  • Medicine

  • Neuroscience

  • Physiology

  • Quantum biology

  • Structural biology

Technology of Biophysics

• Following are the major technologies used in Biophysics −

  • Electron microscope

  • X-ray crystallography

  • NMR spectroscopy

• Atomic force microscope (AFM)

• Small-angle scattering (SAS) technology

Physics - Econophysics

Introduction

• Econophysics is an interdisciplinary science that studies the dynamic behavior of finance and economic markets.

• In order to solve the problems of economics and also to understand the dynamic behavior of the market, the econo-physicists develop applied theories.

• Econophysics, sometime, is also known as the physics of finance.

• It applies statistical mechanics for the economic analysis.

Econophysics Questions

• The econophysics questions include −

  • How to accurately measure and explain the significant properties of market dynamics?

  • How to stabilize the markets?

  • What are the different behaviors in different markets?

Tools of Econophysics

• The fundamental tools of econophysics are −

  • Probabilistic method

  • Statistical method

  • These two methods are borrowed from statistical physics.

• Other tools taken from Physics

  • Fluid dynamics

  • Classical mechanics

  • Quantum mechanics

Models of Econophysics

• Following are the major models those are used in Econophysics −

  • Percolation Model

  

  • Kinetic exchange models of markets

  • Chaotic models

  • Information theory

  • Random matrix theory

  • Diffusion theory

Physics - Geophysics

Introduction

• Geo-physics is a specialized branch of Earth science that studies the physical properties and physical process of the Earth.

• Geophysicists use some quantitative methods and advance technology to analyze the Earth’s properties and process.

• Technology of geophysics is used to locate mineral resources, mitigate natural hazards, and protection of the environment.

• Geophysics has been carved out as an independent discipline from different subjects, such as, geology, physical geography, astronomy, meteorology, and physics.

Elements of Geophysics

• Major elements those are studied under the geophysics are −

  • Shape of the Earth

  • Gravitational force of the Earth

  • Magnetic Fields of the Earth

  • Internal structure of the Earth

  • Composition of the Earth

  • Movement of the Earth’s plate (plate tectonics)

  • Volcanic activity

  • Rock formation

  • Water cycle

  • Fluid dynamics, etc.

Problems that Geophysicists Address

• Following are the problem areas that geophysicists address −

  • Building highways and bridges

  • Mapping and exploration of mineral resources

  • Mapping and exploration of water

  • Mapping the earthquake and volcanic regions

  • Geological mapping

  

  • Archeology discovery

  • Construction of dam and its safety

  • Forensic discovery (finding the buried dead bodies)

Techniques and Technology of Geophysics

• Following are the major techniques and technology of geophysics −

  • Geo-magnetism

  • Electromagnetics

  • Polarization

  • Seismic technology

  • Ground penetrating radar (GPR), etc.

Benefits of Geophysics

• Following are the major benefits of geophysics −

  • Researching and studying archeological sites without destroying them

  • Designing environmental friendly urban architecture

  • Locating and judiciously exploiting natural resources

  • Helping in mitigation of natural hazards such as landslide, earthquake, etc

Physics - Nanotechnology

Introduction

• Nanotechnology is the science of management and manipulation of atoms and molecules to design a new technology.

• Nanotechnology is the supramolecular technology, which means, it is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular or supramolecular scale.

• Interestingly, one nanometer (nm) is equal to one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter.

• The concept and idea of nanotechnology original discussed first time in 1959 by Richard Feynman, the renowned physicist.

• Richard Feynman in his talk “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” described the feasibility of synthesis via direct manipulation of atoms.

• However, in 1974, the term "Nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi.

Major fields of Research

• Following are the major fields in which nanotechnology is being researched −

  • Advance computing − Developing super computer

  • Electronics − developing conductors and semi-conductors

  • Medicines − Developing technology to treat cancer (especially breast cancer)

  • Textile Engineering − Nanofabrication, etc.

Application of Nanotechnology

• Following are the major application of nanotechnology −

  • Manufacturing of lifesaving medical robots

  • Making available the networked computers for everyone in the world

  • Plant networked cameras to watch everyone’s movement (very helpful for the administrative service and maintaining the law and order.

  • Manufacturing untraceable weapons of mass destruction.

  • Swift inventions of many wonderful products useful in everyday life.

• Likewise, the molecular technology has range of potentials that benefit to humankind; however, at the same time, it also brings severe dangers. Untraceable weapon of mass destruction is an ideal example of its deadliness.

Major Branches of Nanotechnology

• Following are the major branches of nanotechnology −

  • Nanoelectronics

  • Nanomechanics

  • Nanophotonics

  • Nanoionics

Contributory Disciplines of Nanotechnology

• Following are the major disciplines that integrated into the development of science of nanotechnology −

  • Surface science

  • Organic chemistry

  • Molecular biology

  • Semiconductor physics

  • Microfabrication

  • Molecular engineering

Implication of Nanotechnology

• Every coin has two faces, similarly, the application of nanotechnology at industrial scale i.e. manufacturing nanomaterials might have negative implications on human health as well as on the environment.

• The workers who especially work in such industry where non materials are used, are more vulnerable, as they inhale airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers. These Nano materials may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, including fibrosis, etc.

Physics - Neurophysics

Introduction

• The branch of medical physics that studies the nervous system, such as brain, spinal cords, and nerves, is known as neurophysics.

• The researchers of neurophysics research the basic physical basis of the brain to understand its different functionality.

• Neurophysicists also study the cognitive process of a human being.

• The term ‘neurophysics’ was originally taken from Greek term namely ‘neuron’ meaning "nerve" and ‘physis’ meaning ‘nature,’ or ‘origin.’ So, neurophysics is basically concerned with the study of the workings of the nervous system.

• Furthermore, the integrity of neural physics also postulates that the whole universe is in living, but in a way that is beyond the conception of biological organisms.

Neurophysics Therapy

• Neurophysics therapy is highly sophisticated exercise-based method of treatment. Such technique treats a wide range of diseases and its successful rate is also high.

• Some of the significant diseases that can be treated through neurophysics therapy are listed below −

  • Arthritis

  • Athletic performance

  • Metabolic disorders

  • Rehabilitation

  • Bipolar disorder

  • Migraine

  • Chronic pain

  • Motor neuron disease

  • Degenerative disorders

  • Depression (clinical; reactive)

  • Muscular dystrophy

  • Drug addiction

  • Epilepsy

  • Osteoarthritis

  • Parkinson’s disease

  • Vestibular disorders

  • Hereditary spastic paraplegia, etc.

• Furthermore, the practice of neurophysics facilitates us to remain healthy and function better in everyday life, as it provides the technique i.e. how to disperse stress evenly in your body and not allowing it to become isolated.

Physics - Psychophysics

Introduction

• Psychophysics is basically an interdisciplinary branch of psychology and physics; it studies the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations along with the perceptions they produce.

• The psychophysicists analyze the perceptual processes by studying the effect on a behavior; further, they also study the systematically varying properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions.

• The concept of psychophysics was first time used in 1860 by Gustav Theodor Fechner in Leipzig, Germany.

• Fechner published his research namely ‘Elemente der Psychophysik’ (i.e. Elements of Psychophysics).

Terms of Psychophysics

• Following are the commonly used terms in psychophysics −

  • Signal detection theory − It explains the interaction of the sensory capabilities and the decision making elements in detecting the stimulus.

  • ‘Ideal observer analysis − It is a technique for investigating i.e. how information has processed in a perceptual system.

  • Difference thresholds − It helps to differentiate two stimuli. This point is termed just-noticeable difference.

  • Absolute threshold − The point at which the person first detects the stimulus strength i.e. presence of stimulus.

  • Scaling − It uses rating scales to allocate relative values.

Modern Approaches of Psychophysicists

• Modern Psychophysicists research on −

  • Vision

  • Hearing

  • Touch (or sense)

• Based on these, psychophysicists measure what the perceiver's decision extracts from the stimulus.

Application of Psychophysicists

• In the present world, psychophysics is commonly applied to treat many of psychological problems.

Physics - Astrophysics

Introduction

• Astrophysics is one of the oldest branches of natural science or astronomy.

• Astrophysics is being used as the basis for making calendars and navigation.

• Astrophysics is also being used as an important input for religions because since the beginning, astrologers taking help of this science to in their astrological works.

• The modern branch of astrophysics namely ‘Theoretical astrophysics,’ describes the functions and behaviors of celestial bodies.

• Theoretical astrophysics uses a wide variety of tools such as analytical models (e.g., polytropes to approximate the behaviors of a star) and the computational numerical simulations.

Topics of Astrophysics

• Following are the major topics of astrophysics (modern) −

  • Solar System (formation and evolution);

  • Stellar dynamics and evolution;

  • Galaxy formation and evolution;

  • Magneto-hydrodynamics;

  • Origin of cosmic rays;

  • General relativity and physical cosmology.

Major Works in Astrophysics

• Following are the major developments in Astrophysics −

  • By using telescope, Galileo had performed the first astronomical studies in 1609. Galileo discovered sun spots and four satellites of Saturn.

  • Based on observations of Tycho Brahe, Kepler had developed three laws of planetary motions.

  • In 1687, Newton had introduced the laws of motion and gravitation.

  • By giving the theory of relativity in 1916, Einstein provided the first consistent basis to study cosmology.

  • In 1926, Hubble discovered that the galaxies are recessing and their velocity is increasing with the distance. It means, the universe is expanding and extrapolating this expansion back in time led to the concept of ‘Big Bang.’

  • In 1974, Hulse and Taylor discovered a binary system of two pulsars that proved the existence of gravitational waves.

Astronomy

• Astronomy the oldest branch of is a natural science that studies celestial objects their functional phenomena.

• In order to explain the origin of the celestial bodies, their evolution, and phenomena, the different disciplines of science such as physics, chemistry, mathematics are applied.

• The objects of study are −

  • Planets

  • Satellites or moons

  • Stars

  • Galaxies

  • Comets, etc.

• Some of the important phenomena those are studied are −

  • Supernova explosions

  • Gamma ray bursts, and

  • Cosmic microwave background radiation, etc.

• During the 20^th century, based on approach of study, the astronomy is categorized as −

  • Observational astronomy − Based on the approach and methods, observational astronomy scientists observe, collect, and analyze the celestial data. To analyze the data, they use basic principles of physics.

  • Theoretical astronomy − The scientists of theoretical astronomy attempt to develop computer or analytical models in order to describe the celestial bodies and their functionalities.

• Likewise, astronomy incorporates the diverse disciplines such as celestial navigation, astrometry, observational astronomy, etc.; this is how astrophysics is profoundly related to astronomy.

Physics - Measurement Units

The following table illustrates the major measuring units in physics −

Conversion of Units

Physics - Major Instruments and Their Uses

The following table illustrates the major scientific instruments and their uses −

Inventions & Inventors in Physics

The following table illustrates the major inventions and their inventors in physics uses −

Physics - Timeline

The following table illustrates the major events (along with probably time period) that occurred in physics −

Physics - Unsolved Problems

Introduction

• The meaning of unsolved problems is – the developed theories and models are incapable to explain some ongoing phenomenon or science experiments are not able to rectify the concerned phenomena.

• The following table illustrates the major unsolved problems in physics −

Terminologies in Physics

The following table illustrates the major ‘Terms’ in physics −

Major Theories and Laws in Physics

The following table illustrates the major theories in Physics along with their respective fields −

Nobel Prize In Physics

Introduction

• The Nobel Prize in Physics is the most prestigious award given yearly by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

• The Noble prize is given to those physicists who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind (in physics).

• Wilhelm Röntgen, a German/Dutch physicist, was the first person who had received the first Nobel Prize in 1901.

• Wilhelm Röntgen had received the Nobel Prize for discovery of the remarkable x-rays).

• In the field of physics (by the time), only two women have won the Nobel Prize, namely Marie Curie (in 1903) and Maria Goeppert Mayer (in 1963).

• The following table illustrates some of the significant physicists who have received the Nobel Prize along with their remarkable works −

Awards Given in Physics

Following are the exclusive category of awards given in the field of Physics −

Scientific Units Named After Inventors

The following table illustrates the list of scientific units, which are exclusively named after their inventors/discovers −

Physics - Top Institutes

Following are the worldly recognized top institutions in the field of Physics −